Mother to Child Transmission of Aids in Africa - 809 Words

Mother to Child Transmission of AIDS in Africa G.T. English Composition II A.L. Jan 26, 2010 How do you tell a child they have AIDS? How many kids are born with AIDS in Africa? Due to the epidemic of AIDS in Africa should the United States assist in supplying mothers who test HIV positive baby formula to discourage breastfeeding? HIV is not spread through pregnancy, but in breast milk. It would make a difference if mothers who are HIV positive in Africa did not breastfeed. Being that Africa can lay claim to having two-thirds of the worlds HIV positive population, one way to help stop the spread among kids would be to eliminate the breastfeeding altogether. While the world keeps supplying condoms and other†¦show more content†¦When volunteers do go Africa to do education, what and how are they teaching? The very first step should be teaching the proper use of condoms. This alone could help slow the spread of HIV however it will not stop the spread completely. Another myth that is very hard to believe exist is that infected males belief is that if they have intercourse with a virgin they will be cured of the AIDS virus. Getting volunteers to educate men about the false claims of this myth is very hard to do. This woeful myth leads to the rapes of very young girls to include babies as young as six months old. This has taken years and years to spread and will continue to spread until people are educated. In order to minimize the transmission of AIDS from mothers to infants, women should be encouraged to breastfeed for a shorter amount of time or, if possible, eliminate breastfeeding altogether. In a WHO study, out of 397 women who had HIV and breastfed, 24 of those infants died. This is compared to six out of 200 HIV-infected women who used formula (â€Å"HIV Transmission†). UNICEF suggests that â€Å"When replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, the avoidance of all breastfeeding byShow MoreRelatedThe Hiv / Aids Epidemic1072 Words   |  5 PagesSouth Africa has been performing poorly on certain health indicators (as seen in Table 1), with their biggest issue being in the fight agai nst HIV/AIDS (Country and Lending Groups, n.d.). They have one of the highest prevalence rates of HIV/AIDS in the world at 19.1%, and the incidence of new cases is increasing steadily (Milan, 2014; CIA, n.d.). To combat this growing problem President Jacob Zuma launched the largest HIV Counseling and Testing campaign in the world in April 2010 (â€Å"Global AIDS†, 2012)Read MoreHealth Issues in Africa1611 Words   |  7 Pagespeople isn’t as healthy as might be imagined. South Africa major health public concerns are HIV/AIDS, malaria, smoking related disease, and tuberculosis, just to name a few of them but all of which affect the non-white population more than the white; apart form these. HIV/AIDS in Africa The rise of sickness in Africa today is mainly caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). AIDS is the number one killer in African society todayRead MoreDifference between HIV and AIDS1344 Words   |  5 PagesHIV and AIDS are not the same illness, one is more severe than the other. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. This virus enters the human immune system, which is the body’s natural defense system, and attacks the body’s CD4 cells (T-cells), and over time, the virus destroys many cells leaving the body incapable of fighting off any infection as minor as a common cold. AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. 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Proved to be originally from Sub Saharan Africa (S.S Africa) region, HIV/AIDS has spread throughout not only the S.S. Africa, but it eventually becomes the global disaster in the late 20th century (Gus). HIV/AIDS has gained attention from the media when the death many patients by the new emerging disease is reported in Europe and US (Satpathy 27). However, these casesRead MoreHuman Immunodeficiency Virus ( Hiv ) / Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ( Aids )1449 Words   |  6 PagesHuman Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) /Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is present around the world. HIV weakens the body’s immune system by attacking its defences against disease this later develops into AIDS which causes for the body to be unable to fight of illness and diseases it usually could (Afao.org.au, 2015). Chad a country of Sub Saharan Africa has an estimated 210,000 people living with HIV/Aids. 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It is the first outlandish and unique widespread of communicable diseases. People with AIDS acquire many different kinds of diseases which the body would usually fight off easily but this illness breaks down the bodyâ€⠄¢s defenses. AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV, which

IB Math Exploration Free Essays

Although the aluminum can and the wood chip were ere close together, there was still a large amount of heat loss to the surroundings. This resulted in a lower temperature reading, which in turn reduced our AT value. Thus reducing our overall enthalpy of combustion and is one of the reasons why the theoretical value does not fall within our experimental range. We will write a custom essay sample on IB Math Exploration or any similar topic only for you Order Now A way we could possibly reduce this error is to alter the apparatus and let as little air escape as possible which would keep energy losses to a minimum while maintaining a stable environment for the wood chip to combustion. Ideally we could have the apparatus inside a glass chamber with a hole for the temperature probe and a hole to light the Another source of error we must take into a count was the improper use of the temperature probe. Instead of letting the probe sit freely in the aluminum can producing an accurate measurement; we let the probe sink to the bottom of the can where it would record a higher temperature due to the hot spot in the water. This has an impact on our experimental value and would be a reason why our experimental value is higher than the theoretical one. This is not the case due to the act that heat loss reduces the amount of energy gained by a substantial amount compared to how much is gained from a rise in temperature. We could have simply eliminated this error by keeping the probe suspended in the water and giving it a stir every once in a while in order to reach uniform temperature in the can. A couple of minor errors I noticed were the fact that we used a graduated cylinder to measure our amount of water. Then we poured that water into our aluminum can but we weren’t able to pour every ounce of water out of the cylinder. Thus affecting our mass in our mica formula for water and having an overall negative affect on our enthalpy value. Another minor thing was that as I noted in my qualitative data I incomplete combustion since soot (or otherwise known as impure carbon particles) is one of the products from that reaction. In this type of reaction less energy is released, thus dropping our enthalpy of combustion value to even further below our theoretical value. In order to fix these minor errors we can fill our can directly from the tap as well as have a greater supply of clean oxygen for the reaction to occur. How to cite IB Math Exploration, Papers

Clinical Audits and Handwashing free essay sample

Clinical Audit is a tool used to examine the practices of health care professionals implemented in a health care environment. Clinical audit can be defined as a clinically led initiative which seeks to improve the quality and outcome of patient care through clinicians examining and modifying their practices according to the standards of what can be achieved, based on the best available evidence’ (Morrell Harvey 1999). Audit has many benefits: increasing the quality of patient care directly, professional development, promoting teamwork, and demonstrating quality to purchasers and consumers (Gannon, 2004). In this assignment, using standard audit criteria the author will undertake a clinical audit in a general nursing area. Clinical Governance was introduced by the British government in 1998 Meal et al, 2004). Taylor and Jones (2006) recognise clinical governance as the framework that ensures that NHS organisations are accountable for continually improving the quality of their services and safeguarding high standards of care by creating an environment in which excellence in clinical care will develop. The introduction of Clinical Governance (National Assembly Wales, (2000) cited by Donaldson and Mullally, 2004) has placed increased emphasis on the use of audit to measure the implementation of policies and procedures relating to infection control. Clinical governance is about changing the way people work; demonstrating that leadership, teamwork and communication is as important to high quality care as risk management and clinical effectiveness (Tait, 2004). Tait (2004) also states that clinical governance requires changes at three levels: individual health care professionals need to embrace change, primary care teams need to become multidisciplinary with clear understanding, primary care organisations need to put in place systems and local arrangements to support such teams. Before carrying out an audit, the reasons for and benefits of carrying it out should be identified. Audits are carried out to ensure that practices are safely provided and evidence-based using current research. In order to undertake an audit, staff must be informed of the process of audit. Providing staff with sufficient information about an audit, including details about what it involves and how areas of poor practice will be dealt with, may help to increase practitioners’ willingness to participate in the project (Ashmore, 2005). Staff willing to carry out an audit must be educated on the process of audit, thus they should have an understanding of the stages of clinical audit. The author will proceed to discuss the stages of audit with reference to a clinical audit that was carried out while on clinical placement in the general setting. There are five stages of clinical audit. The first stage is to choose a topic for audit. In order to select a relevant topic the auditor must consider a few questions such as: is there evidence of a serious quality problem, for example patient complaints? Is the topic a priority for the organisation? Is the problem concerned amenable to change? Is it a situation that can be improved with a responsible amount of time and effort? (NICE, 2002). The topic selected for audit must be related to patient well-being. For the purpose of this assignment the topic of effective hand washing was chosen for audit. Prior to undertaking the audit, permission from patients, medical staff, nursing staff, healthcare assistants and house-keeping staff was obtained verbally. In the case of any medical procedure including clinical audit, informed consent must always be acquired (Van Dokkum, 2005). The second stage of the audit process is agreeing or reviewing standards. By working against either local or national standards, audit can prove effective in revealing practice that is either compliant or non-compliant. Before carrying out the audit, the author researched some relevant literature that contributed to the standard that was set for the audit. The World Health Organisation recommends hand-washing at five different points in contact with a patient: before patient contact, before aseptic task, after bodily fluid exposure, after patient contact and after patient surroundings contact (WHO, 2006). A study by Golan et al (2006), illustrates that hand hygiene compliance among nurses is lower than expectations. The standard set by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) (2003), is that hands must be decontaminated immediately before each and every episode of direct patient contact or care and after any activity or contact that could potentially result in hands becoming contaminated, and also that hands must be decontaminated, preferably with an alcohol-based hand rub unless hands are visibly soiled, between caring for different patients, or between different care activities for the same patient. According to Girou et al (2002), an alcohol-based solution is significantly more efficient in reducing hand contamination than antiseptic soap. These standards where used by the student to devised an audit eligible to measure them efficiently. In stage three of the audit, the assigned examiner in accordance with the audit tool must collect data from current practice. This data has to be as understandable as possible to achieve the correct results. The most effective way to audit is to develop a questionnaire that can assess a situation effectively. When developing an audit tool, it is important to keep it simple. Complex questions will over-complete the audit procedure and lead to inaccurate findings. The audit tool that the author developed was a questionnaire that contained questions with an answer that was either yes/no or non-applicable. The questions chosen for the audit tool where: 1. Do nursing staff use the correct procedure for decontaminating hands? 2. Do nursing staff thoroughly dry hands after decontamination? 3. Is hand hygiene performed prior to patient contact? 4. Is hand hygiene performed following patient contact? With the audit tool completed, the student set about observing practice. The student selected a time when the ward was really busy, so as to catch people off guard. The student observed ten instances of hand washing on the ward, nine of these instances where either preceded or followed with patient contact. All participants observed were nursing staff, and each individual was fully informed that the audit was going to take place. They were not, however, told when the audit was going to take place, in order to prevent simulation. With reference to the first question, 80% of the participants used the correct procedure to decontaminate their hands. With regards the second question, 100% of participants thoroughly dried their hands after decontamination. With regards to the third question, 40% of participants performed hand hygiene prior to patient contact however 100% of participants performed hand hygiene following patient contact. After all data is collected the next stage in the audit cycle can be followed. The fourth stage is where data and findings are compared with the set standards. This is where one can find out whether results meet the set standards or not. The results of this audit did not fully meet the initial standards as only 80% of the participants used the correct procedure to decontaminate their hands successfully. The NICE guidelines (2003) stated that hands must always be contaminated before and after patient activity and in this case 60% failed to follow hand hygiene procedures before patient contact whereas all participants successfully followed hand hygiene procedures after patient contact. Overall only 80% used the correct hand hygiene procedure when decontaminating hands. In the authors’ opinion, the percentage of participants that did not adhere to hand hygiene procedures prior to patient contact is extremely low and shows definite room for improvement. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (2002) state that staff must take care to avoid any act or omission that could reasonably be foreseen as likely to cause injury or harm to themselves or another, therefore, they must follow guidelines designed to reduce the risk of infection to both themselves and their patients. However the author feels that the overall percentage of participants that demonstrated the correct procedure for hand hygiene was satisfactory in this instance. Once results are analyzed and compared with standards the fifth stage of the audit process can be commenced. Stage five is where suggestions for improvement are explored and discussed. These changes are then implemented to bring about change in a certain situation that has been audited. Changes should be implemented with recent relevant evidence-based information. Changing health care practice is commonly attempted by feedback of performance data measured by clinical audit (Reilly et al, 2002). Once these changes are implemented they must be monitored to prove that they are effective, efficient and applied appropriately in practice. For the purposes of this assignment, a few possible changes that could raise compliance with hand hygiene where discussed but not in fact executed. Cooper and Hewison (2002) believe that the use of audit in clinical health settings can bring about improvements in quality of care which is what every health care professional strives to achieve. The author purposes that training sessions for correct hand hygiene procedures are routinely scheduled and carried out by a trained infection control nurse for this ward with attendance records of staff that receive the training. From the records one can see how often the staffs’ knowledge of accurate hand hygiene is updated. An advantage of hand hygiene training routinely available on wards is that all staff will have evidence-based information on hand hygiene which will lead to more effective patient care. The author considers that routine training on the ward will increase staff awareness of hand hygiene and will also educate healthcare professionals to the correct timing and technique of hand hygiene. If this were to be implemented a follow up audit would have to be carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the training. While the audit process proves effective in measuring practice against procedures there can be drawbacks to clinical audit. If the audit tool is too complicated results can be misconstrued which leads to false outcomes (Rostami et al, 2009). This can then mislead the reader into thinking that practice is either effective or non-effective with the set standards. If results from a particular audit are incorrectly obtained or recorded, preventative measures implemented due to them may be time consuming, expensive and can also cause a reduction in the quality of care patients receive as opposed to increasing the quality of care. When partaking in this audit the author found no huge restrictions during the collection or analysis of data however, the author felt that some of the participants where aware that the author was observing them thus influencing them to perform correct hand hygiene procedures. The author felt that there were no additive measures that could have been implemented to prevent this from occurring in this case. In conclusion, this assignment has discussed what is meant by clinical audit and what the functions of performing an audit are. Audits are carried out to measure the effectiveness of certain clinical procedures and to measure how well healthcare professionals adhere to policies and standards set specifically for any given area. The author also discussed using relevant literature the term of clinical governance. It basically means an approach to maintaining and improving the quality of patient care by observation of current practice within a health care environment that was brought about by the British government. In this assignment the author also discussed a clinical audit take was put into effect while on placement in a general setting. The author also discussed the five stages of audit while also referring to the audit that was carried out. Findings of the audit were reviewed and compared with standards and possible solutions for change were talked about. From the audit, the author can see that more emphasis should be placed on hand hygiene prior to and after patient contact. The author also believes that in order to carry out an audit the individual must be educated in the process of audit and willing to make the necessary changes for improving practice for patient care. The author would advise all health care professionals to update their knowledge of clinical audit by attending workshops and seminars on the topic of audit (Kinn et al, 1994).

The Strengths and Weaknesses of Focus Group Research Essay Example

The Strengths and Weaknesses of Focus Group Research Essay Focus groups are a prominent method of enquiry, regularly used within the field of social science and in particular, qualitative research. The focus group practice involves a number of participants having an open discussion on a specific topic, set by a researcher. The researcher acts as a moderator to aid discussion by using probes to collect desirable data. This process is recorded and transcripts are used to interpret and analyse given information. Carson et al (2001, p. 114) refers to focus groups as â€Å"A research technique that collects data through group interaction on a topic or topics†. They also suggest that the central distinctive characteristic of focus groups is group interaction, which generates a mass of data, which would be inaccessible without using focus groups. Focus groups are used in many industries to collect ideas and understanding. Carson et al (pg 8) suggest that groups as a social research tool have been used for some time but the term ‘focus group’ was established in the classic study, The Focused Interview by Merton et al (1956). Merton’s study influenced the creation of the procedures that are now accepted as common practice in focus groups. Although this particular method possesses a substantial number of strengths, focus groups also occupy a number of weaknesses that disadvantage the researcher and limit findings which can be discussed in relevance to theories. Firstly, Dawn Snape and Liz Spencer (2003, p. 3) propose that it is important to define the practice of qualitative data before discussing the implications of it. They also suggest that qualitative research is difficult to define and can never entirely be classified. We will write a custom essay sample on The Strengths and Weaknesses of Focus Group Research specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Strengths and Weaknesses of Focus Group Research specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Strengths and Weaknesses of Focus Group Research specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer They infer that there is a wide consensus that qualitative research is a naturalistic and interpretive approach, with an emphasis on the understanding of the meanings which people attach to phenomena. This point is supported by Alan Bryman, he comments: â€Å"The way in which people being studied understand and interpret their social reality is one of the central motifs of qualitative research. † (Bryman, 1998, P. 8) Snape and Spencer refer to qualitative research as a complex, subjective and observational approach which takes focus on participant’s frames of reference. There are no rules or single accepted way of exerting qualitative research, the methods are dependent on; ontology, the beliefs regarding the social world and epistemology, the beliefs regarding the nature of knowledge. In addition, qualitative research draws on philosophical, psychological and sociological ideas in order to search for in-depth data to aid the explanation of social phenomena. The key argument of qualitative research is that human behaviour is not simply driven by external forces; humans actively contribute to the construction of their own social world. The central purpose of qualitative research is to explore meanings by interpreting data, rather than searching for specific answers by quantifying empirical data. A major critique of qualitative research is the fact that everyone is different and holds and creates their own schemas, so therefore there can be no definitive answer or explanation. The history of qualitative research is also important to acknowledge, in order to place focus groups into context. Traditionally, social science research imitated natural science methods in an attempt to create universally accepted laws. Social science suppresses many philosophical underpinnings, which influenced this consensus. There were three key people implicated in these underpinnings, each pursuing the idea of the previous. The first key philosopher was Rene Descartes (1596-1650), an empirical researcher. In his book, Discourse on Method (1637), Descartes suggested that the search for the truth could be completed by using methods of objectivity, in order to accumulate observable evidence. Following Descartes was another key philosopher, David Hume (1711-1776), also an empirical researcher. Hume also believed that objectivity, as well as unbiased and direct observation, could produce substantial empirical evidence. Lastly, Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a sociologist and empirical researcher, proposed that the invariant laws apparent in natural science were also present in matters of social science. Comte implied that research methods used in natural science were also appropriate to the study of social science and phenomena. Comte influenced 20th Century research paradigms, which resulted in a school of thought called positivism. Positivism states that only observable phenomena count as knowledge. Positivism also promotes scientific research methods and empirical testing of hypotheses. Positivism encouraged the formalising of quantitative research methods, collecting numerical data. However, other philosophical perspectives challenged positivism. Immanuel Kant, (1724-1804), a philosopher, suggested that there were other ways to understand the world. He believed knowledge could be acquired through interpretations and experiences. Other perspectives, such as that of Kant, consequently led to the employment of another school of thought called interpretivism. Interpretivism promotes subjective understanding of meaningful experiences. Interpretivism encouraged the formalising of Qualitative research methods to overcome the limitations that quantitative research possessed. The use of focus groups as a qualitative and interpretive method of enquiry comprises of a number of strengths and weaknesses. One of the most prominent strength of focus groups is the ability to collect both new and rich information. Carson et al (p. 114) suggest that the new results that focus groups produce could not be possible with other methods of enquiry as they do not allow the same sense of exploration. They argue that focus groups are an exploratory and developmental method of enquiry, not limited to just listening to what people have to say but by using interpretation skills, generates insights into the sources of certain behaviours and perceptions. Furthermore, Carson et al (p. 115) argue that focus groups can contribute information that may help to; obtain pre-conceived ideas and stimulate new ideas on, help to diagnose former or potential problems, generate further research ideas and establish how participants discuss and construct their own schema of phenomena. Additionally, they believe that meaningful construct is interpreted from the highlighting, exchanging and revising of opinions, perceptions and differences. Another strength of focus groups is the depth of understanding of the generated information. Carson et al (p. 115-116) imply that depth of understanding enabled by focus group allows a deeper appreciation of the phenomenon. They also outline the fact that focus groups bring together and allow the analysis of diverse opinions rather than a single one, which would generate from other methods of enquiry. The discussion of these opinions, which allow participants to share their own ideas and listen to others, creates a type of forum. This allows the researcher to note the response of one participant to another. As a result, the researcher is at an advantage as they have no need to speculate about differences in participants and data as this is evident within the focus group transcript. Ritchie and Lewis (2003, p. 87) agree with this theory as they imply that allowing the participants of a focus group to refer to their own personal experiences influences them to build upon what other participants have said and refine their own view, this creates a more in depth discussion and findings. However, Silverman (2001, p. 221) argues that researchers should not rely on experience to count as knowledge: â€Å"The assumption that ‘experience’ is paramount is not at all new†¦to focus on ‘experience’ alone undermines what we know about the cultural and linguistic fo rms which structure what we count as ‘experience’. Furthermore, another prominent strength of focus groups as a research tool is flexibility and group interaction. Flexibility and group interaction is the most fundamental and unique aspect of focus groups. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 175) suggest that group interaction is a major strength of focus groups as it allows an open and energetic discussion built on motivation and enjoyment. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 188) also propose that these conditions allow a more truthful debate, which are more in depth and passionate. Ritchie and Lewis explain that group interaction enables participants to work together, quickly developing a ‘synergy’ which allows greater depth of insight into even the most challenging of subjects. This confidence allows the participants to dominate the focus group procedure thus allowing them to determine their own narrative, helping to expose the culture and values of each individual. Ritchie and Lewis describe this strength as â€Å"the most productive phase of the group process. †(Ritchie and Lewis J, 2003, p. 176) Carson et al (p. 16) agree with Ritchie and Lewis by suggesting that â€Å"interaction is a unique strength of focus groups and should improve the quality of the ideas and opinions generated†. They propose that the participants act upon their own comparisons and ideas rather than relying on the moderator as a medium of discussion or speculation. Carson et al further their explanation by emphasizing that the vital strength of focus groups, as a qualitative and interpretive research tool, is its capacity to expose intricate behaviours and motivations. Carson et al infer that this strength is a simultaneous reaction to group interaction. Furthermore, the role of the researcher within this interaction is also advantaged. Ritchie and Lewis highlight the fact that the role of the researcher in the group is more active and physical than in interviews. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, unknown source) agree by stating: â€Å"Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. † This quote infers that they believe that focus groups allow the researcher to situate themselves and get involved. This is a significant strength of focus groups as it allows the researcher to actively listen then act upon given information by using appropriate probes to gain further or richer information. However, this theory is over shadowed by a weakness of focus groups, the lack of control and high level of unpredictability. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 116) state that sometimes it is difficult for the researcher to dominate a focus group. Participants can easily move from the focal topic of discussion to a topic that they would prefer to talk about; this may have no relevance to the phenomena being researched. Never the less, group interaction, according to Ritchie and Lewis ( p. 175), allows prominent socially accepted views, behaviours and norms to be revealed to the researcher. Ritchie and Lewis refer to this feature as a potentially valuable aspect of data as it allows the researcher to assess the context and vulnerability of the participant’s ideas. However, it is important to note that this data must be monitored and compared to transcripts later on, as the participants generally become more comfortable with expressing less confirming views. This is evident in a prominent weakness of focus groups called demand characteristics. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 185) suggest that participants may realise the intentions of the researcher and as a result give them information that they think they want, instead of their true opinions. This can cause false interpretations and therefore invalid information. Furthermore, Ritchie and Lewis discuss real or imaginary pressure, which can also cause problems; â€Å"a common criticism of focus groups is that the group exerts a pressure on its participants. † (Ritchie. R and Lewis, J, 2003, p. 88). Participants may feel the need to give politically acceptable answers, feel under pressure to conform to other participants or adjust their views to fulfil social norms; this can cause inconsistency in the findings. None the less, another suggestion of why group interaction is a primary strength of focus groups is it allows the advantage of group diversity. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 188) consider tha t group discussion can reveal differences and diversities between participants which awards the researcher with a key opportunity to explore group diversity. Ritchie and Lewis believe that delving into diversity and dimensions of difference can both explain and explore causes, effects and consequences. Additionally, they suggest that by using heterogeneous rather than homogeneous participants, the resulted discussion can provide different perspective and views, which should need no persuasion by the moderator to be aired. However, too much diversity can result in weak data. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 190-191) also discuss that too much diversity can actually inhibit discussion. For example, major diversities in socio-demographic makeup, such as social status, of a group of participants can influence how open the group are. Participants may feel uncomfortable, threatened by others or anxious about the response they may receive. This weakness may make it difficult for the researcher to cover key topics in depth. Ritchie and Lewis emphasise the need for a balance in diversity of the participants Another strength of focus groups is the advantage of a good sample. By using certain participants within a focus group a researcher can gain strong results. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 192) suggest that using participants, who know each other or hold some type of relationship, can trigger pre existing memories which are extremely valuable for exploring and interpreting shared meanings. Furthermore, this set up can create a feeling of a safer atmosphere for participants to air their views or opinions. In comparison, using a sample of strangers can also be comforting for the individuals as they feel they may never see the other participants again therefore feel no need to hold back. However, a weakness in sampling is also present. Ritchie and Lewis (p. 192) note that a substantial problem with using a preconceived group of participants is group norms may dominate, limiting the openness of discussion. Furthermore, they state that any shared meanings may not be expanded on enough, as they may be taken for granted. This may result in the meanings having no value at all. Additionally, strangers may hold back discussion too much and fail to develop a ‘synergy’. The last strength of focus groups as a qualitative and interpretive method of enquiry is the advantage of saving time and money. Carson et al (p. 116) explain that the same number of participants used in other methods of research, such as interviews, can contribute information in the same or less time within a focus group as the latter are conducted in a group setting, rather than in repetitive and tedious, individual settings. Additionally, analysing and transcripts of information only need to be completed once. Consequently, this also saves the researcher money too. All fees are only payable once, such as room hire, or recording equipment. However, Morgan and Krueger (1993) criticise this account by stating that recruiting willing participants for focus groups can be both time consuming and costly unless participants are easily accessible. Many people are reluctant to take part without an incentive, refreshments and even paid travel, which can also be costly. In conclusion, focus groups as a qualitative and interpretive method of enquiry possess a substantial number of strengths and weaknesses. The main advantages are the collection of new information, the depth of understanding, group interaction, strong samples and savings in time and money. However, these strengths are also over shadowed by a number of weaknesses which could interrupt the consistency of data. However, as Carson et al (p. 117) suggest, the mass of advantages of focus groups easily outweigh the disadvantages. This may be because it is evident that focus groups as a method of enquiry, achieve more insight and depth of understanding than would individually be generated. Furthermore focus groups hold a unique strength, group interaction, not found in any other method. Finally, when evaluating the quality of results from a focus group, it is important to remember, as Ritchie and Lewis (p. 196) explain, that the most stimulating and successful focus groups come with experience.

10 Tips for Writing Your First Childrens Book

10 Tips for Writing Your First Childrens Book While you might think that writing a childrens book is an easy process, there are many challenges to writing a good childrens book and getting it successfully published. More childrens books with pictures are sent to potential editors and literary agents than any other type of book. To get to the top of this huge pile, you will want to follow these important tips to create a book that will stand out.Tip 1 - Figure out your target audienceWhen you think of children, what age range actually pops into your head first? Childrens reading abilities develop at a rapid pace, so your style needs to fit a very specific age group. Some age groups that are often used when choosing a target market for childrens books are as follows:Young Children: Ages 2–6Middle Grade: Ages 8–11Young Adult: Ages 12+There is a variety of reading levels within the young children age group. Children ages 5 and 6 years will probably be able to read more words than a child who is 3 years old. This is a key consideration when deciding on how many pictures and how many words you will use. Many writers think that their story will work for all age groups, but it is best to choose one group and write specifically for them.Tip 2 - Choose the right themeChoosing a theme is a crucial aspect of writing childrens books. There needs to be an appeal for your target age group. What is important to them? What kinds of situations are they concerned about in their everyday lives? For example, you dont want to write about a man who works every day at a fast-food restaurant when your target audience is pre-school children. Even if you have cute drawings and a fun story, that characters problems most likely wont resonate with very young children. The child needs to be able to identify with the characters visually as well as narratively.Tip 3 - Story development is keyThere needs to be a clear beginning to your story, a clear middle or peaking point, and a clear ending with closure. Childrens books dont need to have cliffhangers if there is a series of books. Children like resolutions to the story.The middle of the story needs to have some clear peak moment. What problem did the main character encounter? Did they meet someone special that day? Did the character maybe learn something new? Children can learn alongside the characters, especially when there are pictures and drawings to encourage a visual connection.Tip 4 - Keep it subtleJust because your story has a message for children doesnt mean that it needs to be made loud and clear. The children are reading the story first and foremost to have fun. You arent writing for the parents, either. To help you know if the moral of your story sounds too loud and clear, compare it to a fable. If you can see clear similarities to Aesops fables, then the message is probably too loud. While you might want to teach life lessons to the children through your story, it needs to first be a fun story.Tip 5 - Keep a good balance of words to picturesBecause childrens stories are short, it is a greater challenge to tell your story effectively. Using a good balance of words to pictures throughout the story can help to build a quality childrens book. Most childrens books with pictures range between 50 and 1,000 words in length. The story should stick to the point without using unnecessary words, terms, or events than can distract the child from the main point. There is one path with childrens books, which is different from adult novels and YA novels. There are a limited number of characters and the focus stays on their experiences.Tip 6 - Take your timeAgain, writing childrens books is not easy. Take your time to get it right. Despite being short, childrens books require the same type of effort that 300-page novels do. Review the story, diction, syntax, word choice, and other aspects that could affect how a child experiences the story. You could even consider the process similar to writing Pride and Prejudice as a limeric k with pictures.Tip 7 - Be uniqueIf you are submitting your book to a publisher or literary agent, youll want your story to stand out from the crowd. What makes it different from all the other childrens stories out there? What other books have your own kids read? How is your story different from those stories?You should also keep in mind that you can have a silly, a funny, or a serious childrens book. There is no one way to tell a story. A child could be dealing with grief or an injury or illness, and a more serious childrens book can help them to overcome those challenges. If you have a good idea for a serious childrens book, then be sure to apply all of the above tips to make it effective for your specific age group audience.Tip 8 - Find the right publisherIf you are not going the self-publishing route, then you will want to connect with the right publishing house or literary agent for this genre. Do some research into different publishers to find the ones who specialize in chil drens books. One way to find this information quickly is to look at published childrens books that you like or that are similar in theme and style to yours. Make note of the publisher listed on those books.Look those publishers up online and see if they accept unsolicited manuscripts. Not all publishing houses do. If they do not, then you will want to find a literary agent who can place your manuscript for you.Once you have chosen the right publisher and/or literary agent for your childrens book, you will want to write a query letter. This letter will be the key to getting your foot in the door. If you have nothing else edited for your childrens book, have your query letter edited. Publishers dont have time to accept letters and manuscripts that dont meet their standards, so be sure you meet all the requirements flawlessly before sending your letters out.Dont get caught up in scams. There are publishers that ask for money upfront or that only give you a very small percentage of the profits. Beware of those companies and stay away from them. This is why, despite the amount of time it can take, it is important to try and get picked up by a reputable company.Tip 9 - Find the right illustratorIf you choose to self-publish your work, then you will need to consider the illustrations. While it may seem like an attractive, cost-effective option, you should not illustrate your own work unless you are a professional illustrator. Set a realistic budget for your artwork. Be respectful of the time an illustrator will put into working on your book, and dont try to get them to do it for free or in exchange for royalties.Decide on what kinds and sizes of illustrations you want for your book. Do you want full-page illustrations or half-page ones? Will there be one per chapter? How big is your book going to be and how will it be laid out (horizontal, square, vertical)? All of these will determine what kinds of illustrations your book needs.If you are working with a publisher, then he or she will have illustrators. You will not need to search for an artist to create the drawings. You will, however, be able to collaborate with the publisher to ensure that the illustrations are what you envisioned for your story.Tip 10 - Consider costFor a 30-page childrens book, you could pay anywhere from $2,500 – $11,000. Royalties could be paid on top of that after publication. When figuring the cost, consider each illustration as its own piece of work. Generally, approximately $150 per illustration is a good place to start. There is a lot of time and effort that has to go into the drawings, so this is a reasonable expectation for a good illustrator. Plan plenty of time for this process as well. You dont want to rush illustrations because that can interfere with the creative process. A rushed set of illustrations can miss the mark when it comes to visually presenting your carefully created characters and storyline. With the right illustrations, you can have a gr eat start to marketing your book online direct to readers and to groups who will make bulk purchases for their students or patrons.Why are childrens books a good genre to write?Some people think that childrens book writers are the lesser types of authors. The illusion that writing childrens books is easy contributes to that misconception about the authors themselves. Despite this, writing childrens books is a rewarding and difficult process.Larger audienceWho do you think reads more books – children or adults? Children do! The Association of American Publishers reported that the children and young adult category saw the largest growth in the book industry in 2014. In addition, American children peak in their desire to read for fun in fifth grade. This means that from the time they start reading to the time they leave fifth grade, their desire for books is continually increasing. If you are looking for a continuing audience, then childrens books are a good place for you.Making moneyWhile some people think that there isnt enough money to make a living in the childrens book industry, this is not true. While it might take a while, childrens book authors do have an advantage when it comes to sales. Schools and libraries often make large orders of childrens books. This is especially true if the book has won awards or has been added to a particular reading list. This presents some pretty large marketing opportunities even for self-published authors. Working on cross-linking with bloggers and book enthusiasts will get your book recognized across the internet, which can translate directly into sales. You may even be able to get people to promote your book for you if you have an Amazon store and give affiliates a link to use to sell your book.Movies and TVThere are so many movies and TV shows based on childrens books that it would be hard to list them all. Many authors have even had their books optioned by studios. While that doesnt mean an immediate big paycheck , it does mean that there is that possibility for your story to be put out to audiences on additional mediums.In the end, writing childrens books is a lengthy and challenging process, but you have the opportunity to enhance the lives of young people all across the world. Seeing your work in libraries and schools, or even in your neighbors house, is worth all the time and effort you put into it.

Warrants in the Toulmin Model of Argument

Warrants in the Toulmin Model of Argument In the Toulmin model of argument, a warrant is a general rule indicating the relevance of a claim. A warrant may be explicit or implicit, but in either case, says David Hitchcock, a warrant is not the same as a premise. Toulmins grounds are premises in the traditional sense, propositions from which the claim is presented as following, but no other component of Toulmins scheme is a premise. Hitchcock goes on to describe a warrant as an inference-licensing rule: The claim is not presented as following from the warrant; rather it is presented as following from the grounds in accordance with the warrant Examples and Observations [T]he Toulmin warrant usually consists of a specific span of text which relates directly to the argument being made. To use a well-worn example, the datum Harry was born in Bermuda supports the claim Harry is a British subject via the warrant Persons born in Bermuda are British subjects. The connection between the data and the conclusion is created by something called a warrant. One of the important points made by Toulmin is that the warrant is a kind of inference rule and in particular not a statement of facts. In enthymemes, warrants are often unstated but recoverable. In alcoholic beverages should be outlawed in the U.S. because they cause death and disease each year, the first clause is the conclusion, and the second the data. The unstated  warrant is  fairly phrased as In the U.S. we agree that products causing death and disease should be made illegal. Sometimes leaving the warrant unstated makes a weak argument seem stronger; recovering the warrant to examine its other implications is helpful in argument criticism. The warrant above would also justify outlawing tobacco, firearms, and automobiles. Sources: Philippe Besnard et al.,  Computational Models of Argument. IOS Press, 2008Jaap C. Hage,  Reasoning With Rules: An Essay on Legal Reasoning. Springer, 1997Richard Fulkerson, Warrant.  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age, ed. by Teresa Enos. Routledge, 1996/2010

Food Safety Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Food Safety Paper - Essay Example Food can easily get contaminated by a number of reasons. Some types include microbiological contamination which is unnoticeable and occurs swiftly if food is left open. Another type of contamination includes physical contamination which is noticeable to the naked eye but occurs due to inattentiveness towards food in particles form. The last type of contamination is chemical contamination which occurs through airborne chemical substances which settle into food and may be very harmful (D'Mello, 2003). In UK, during the last 15 years, there has been a substantial increase in incidents related to food safety. In 1980, incidents regarding food-borne illness were around 12,700 in UK which bolstered up to 100,000 in 1998. The Health Education Authority (HEA) conducted a research which portrayed that around three million children even under teenage make their own breakfast and that 65 percent of such children serve their parents with evening cooked meals. There were 57 percent of children wh o prepared food with pets around them, and 46 percent shared their food with their pets during preparation (Food and Drink Federation, 1996). This shows how food safety is left loose and can be harmful for both, children and their parents. The incidents of most concern to citizens of the United Kingdom involve many unknown factors. In 1986, the first incidence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in British cattle was reported. It was not until 1996, however, that U.K. scientists identified a possible link between BSE, a new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), and 14 deaths. This discovery resulted in the slaughter of all beef cattle over 30 months old and worldwide bans on sales of British beef. The sale of beef on the bone also was temporarily banned. Research into the long-term impact of BSE in cattle and it’s; relationship to CJD in humans is ongoing. The British government is investing heavily in research to learn more about the long-term impact on the populati on (Patnoad, 2001). Food safety involves a number of steps which need to be carried in order to ensure safe consumption. For this, the food must be well stored in clean and sanitized storage facilities, followed by proper preparation equipments and preservation facilities. In the United Kingdom, the sanitation process of food begins immediately after the food items are acquired from the market and is carried out effectively until the leftovers of the food are dealt with properly. These sanitation measures are not too complicated and can be easily practiced at home too. These measures are constructed with a series of processes that are followed in order to provide quality sanitized food from the commercial kitchens in UK to the customers, effectively. Firstly, it is made sure that food is prevented from getting contaminated through any types mentioned earlier. This is done by the decisive action of storing the food properly. Food items like sugar, flour, spices and cornmeal should be kept in airtight containers to barrier out bacteria present in the air. Also, items like vegetables and meat should be safely kept into airtight containers into a cold storage like freezer (Griffith, 1995). Commercial kitchens in the U.K have laid down basic kitchen sanitation guidelines which they follow which ultimately serves to be a vital element of food safety. They ensure that their preparation counters are properly sanitized and disinfected

THE WEATHERMEN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

THE WEATHERMEN - Essay Example d against government officials targeted government buildings where warnings of evacuation were given to all officials with a warning that the attacks would be a form of protest against the government (Kirkpatrick, 2009). The rage demonstrations of 6th October, 1969 gave way to the bombing of the statue in Chicago that commemorated police casualties of the 1886 Haymarket riot. On 6th October, 1970 saw the statue rebuilt, however, it was blown up again by weathermen. It was rebuilt again and destroyed a third time by the same group. On February 16, 1970, the group planted a nail bomb on window ledge at the Park police station, San Francisco. One police officer was killed and a second officer was partially blinded. There were arson attacks in new York city were also blamed on the group with the explosion of Molotov cocktails filled with gasoline at the home of the Justice John Murtagh of the New York Supreme court being of the significant cases. Though no one was harmed in the explosion, it sent a very clear message since the judge was presiding over the case against members of the Black Panther party. The bombing of the New York Police headquarters in 1970 also falls into their mandate (Kirkpatrick, 2 009). Their strategic goal was to have the government cave in to their demands and stop bombing the Vietnamese. They wanted the government to provide democracy to all citizens in the world, and having to bomb one of the states would negate this principal (Kirkpatrick, 2009). They were only successful in instilling fear amongst the citizens because the government went on its campaign. They were arrested and by 1976, their numbers were decreasing and the divisions amongst them did not allow them to achieve much. The blacks and Hispanics were against their marginalization in the group and wanted to have a bigger voice in the way things were carried out in the faction (Kirkpatrick, 2009). Pape notes, â€Å"The cohesiveness of most groups is built mainly on having a common

John Proctor change during the course of the play Essay Example for Free

John Proctor change during the course of the play Essay How does John Proctor change during the course of the play? How might this change be communicated on stage? In Act one we first see John Proctor. He appears to be a very sharp and nasty man. We can see this in the way he talks to his servant, Mary Warren: Be you foolish Mary Warren? Be you deaf? I am looking for you more than I am looking for my cows!! If I were producing this play on the stage I would have Mary warren cowering away from John Proctor. This would give the audience an impression that he is quite a nasty man. But this all changes when he meets Abigail as she realises that he is still a powerful man even though he committed adultery with her: Gah, Id almost forgot how powerful you were John Proctor! In the same conversation he shows he has feelings for Abigail and that he is a deceitful person: Oh, how you sweated like a stallion whenever I come near. This language creates a sense of a passionate relationship. If I were producing this on stage I would have Abigail trying to hold John while he is looking away and checking no one is around. Even though he has committed lechery he is still protective over is wife as he tells Abigail that she will not speak anything of Elizabeth to him. He also shows that he is in denial and a liar as he denies anything ever happening between him and Abigail: Aye but we did not The language from the conversation with Abigail creates a sense of confusion with Johns personality as he does one thing and says another. Although he is a well-respected member of the community, as the audience we dont really know whether to trust him or not. He has a high expectation of Hale before he meets him and when he first meets him he is shocked by him: Why, Mr. Hale! Good evening to you, sir. Come in Come in. If I were producing this play then I would have John looking quite flabbergasted. This would show that Mr. Hale impresses him and that he respects him. He is also respectful to him: Ive heard you be a sensible man, Mr. Hale This concludes how John is respectful to his fellow villagers. He is well respected in the community and this may be why. In Act 2 we see the relationship between him and his wife, Elizabeth. The relationship in their marriage seems to be quite distant as john arrives late home. This could suggest that he stayed away longer because he wanted to avoid Elizabeth due to the fact that he has a guilty conscience: What keeps you so late its almost dark In a production of this play I would have the room very dark with just a few candles on the table. There would be food on the table but it would not look appetising, as it would have gone cold. There would be family pictures on a dresser at the side. This indicates that john is a family man, or so Elizabeth thinks. Even though there are pictures of their family presented in the kitchen, this is due to their appearance in Salem. They are well respected so if they tell people that John has been unfaithful then the village will look down on them. As readers it seems that Elizabeth knows about Johns affair as they had an argument about forgiving and forgetting but John is nasty to Elizabeth and shouts at her: Oh, Elizabeth, your justice would freeze beer! Although he is irate with her he still wants to please her as he was unfaithful to her. He does this by complimenting her cooking even though he changed it so it would taste better. Johns temper also increases when he has arguments with Elizabeth. He constantly takes his anger out on Mary Warren even though she hasnt actually done anything wrong: Ill whip you if you dare leave this house again! This language creates a sense of him being a bully. Mary Warren always seems to be the victim. Proctor shows he is bossy also when he orders Mary Warren to go to bed. This is what adults say to young children not to 18 year olds. This gives us a sense that he is treating her like a child and is disrespectful to her. Mary Warren is also more than Johns servant in the house as he tries to get her, along with himself, to overthrow the court to free Elizabeth. This also enables him to get revenge on Abigail for accusing his wife. If I were producing this play then I would have Mary trying to run away shouting that she wont do it. This would indicate that she is scared of John and doesnt feel safe near him. His anger also is shown in this Act as he rips the deputy governors warrant up. This is very disrespectful and rude to Mr. Hale, Mr. Danforth and Cheever as they are the people giving out warrants, leaving Mr. Danforth to sign them. John has destroyed legal documents that have been given out by these 3 men. John also shows that he is religious and is part of the belief of Christianity as he shouts at Mr. Hale: Pontius Pilate! God will not let you wash your hands of this! If I were producing this play on stage I would have John with lots of anger shown on his face looking like he was going to hit Mr. Hale. Mr. Hale would turn around and start to run towards Cheever. This would indicate that John is a scary man and that getting away from him is probably the best thing to do. His emotions suddenly change when Elizabeth appears. He turns into a caring man when they are taking her away: I will bring you home, I will bring you home soon This language shows that John can be caring, as he has forgotten about Mr. Hale and Cheever and is now concentrating on his wife. Proctor has faith that his wife never lies. She confessed that she doesnt believe in witches even though her religion says she should believe in them. At the end of act 2 John feels quite scared as he is trying to make Mary overthrow the court and she doesnt want to do it: My wife will never die for me! I will bring your guts into your mouth but that goodness will not die for me! John character has gone from being angry to being scared in Act 2. In Act 3 Johns attitude changes, as he becomes quite a false man. This is shown when he is in the court introducing his case to Danforth: She has signed a deposition The language indicates that he is playing a court game as he has written a legal statement. When he is presenting himself he is very polite to Mr. Danforth, this is probably in his attempt to overthrow the court. He responds to questions very politely and doesnt appear violent: John Proctor, sir, Elizabeth Proctor is my wife Even though John stays calm, Danforth constantly tries to interrogate him. This slowly increases his temper; he keeps to his words without erupting with anger, as he knows this will do him more harm than good. When John speaks Danforth is constantly interrupting him, this is frustrating for him, as he cannot finish what he is saying: I come not to hurt the court, I only- The technique that Danforth uses to interrogate John suggests by Johns reaction that it is annoying and could start an argument. If I were producing this play then I would have John dressed smartly so he looks professional and Danforth sat higher up than John so he looks more important. John would try to avoid looking Danforth in the eyes. This would indicate to the audience that John is a little fearful of Danforth, as he knows that he could sentence himself and his wife to death at any time. When Elizabeth Proctor was accused of witchcraft due to the poppet that was found and Abigails accusation this made John angry. In court John is sarcastic about this and tries to change the subject and make it funny: There might also be a dragon with five legs in my house but no one has ever seen it! This language also shows that John is biding time with the court. If I where producing this play then I would have John laughing, looking around the court but no one else would be laughing. This could indicate that he is scared and is trying to laugh it of or this could be so he can think of more negatives about Abigail and prove that she is lying. John is also indiscreet as he tells Danforth about how Abigail laughed during Prayer: she were twice this year put out of this meetin house for laughter during prayer! John also shows that he is nasty as he calls Abigail a whore. Consequently this proves that John Proctor wants to seek revenge on Abigail. Even though this makes Abigail sound like the victim she is not as she is the one who is making false allegations against honest, well respected members of the community. When John is presenting his own case to save his life he is like a hero and he is very brave. He tells Danforth what he actually thinks of him: I see the boot of Lucifer, I see his dirty face, and it is my face and yours Danforth!

Good and Evil in Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne Essay

Good and Evil in Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† there is a fight between good and evil with one main character being torn between the two sides and every other character seemingly on one side or the other through the reader’s view, although many characters do deceive Goodman Brown about whether they are good or evil. This fight between the two sides and the deception that causes confusion for Goodman Brown is the source of tension throughout the entire story. In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† every character’s traits and dialogue, the setting, and even colors mentioned have double meanings and are symbolic to the main binary oppositions of either good or evil. In the beginning of the story, Young Goodman Brown â€Å"crosses the threshold† of his home, leaving his Faith, whom he calls his â€Å"angel on earth† and traveling on a journey into the dark night (page 2186). Right away the reader sees that Faith is symbolic of goodness, although she does wear pink ribbons, a mixture of white and red that symbolizes purity and sexuality, but these are worn in the confines of her marriage, causing the reader to view the pink as being sacred. The journey Goodman Brown is taking is opposite of everything that Faith stands for and immediately appears to be ominous when good Faith begs him to stay with â€Å"trouble in her face, as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight† (2187). Goodman Brown knows that he is leaving for an â€Å"evil purpose,† but feels justified in doing so because â€Å"after this one night [he’ll] cling to [Faith’s] skirts and follow her to Heaven,† as if hi s association with Faith, who represents goodness, will save him and allow him to enter into Heaven even if he enters into the si... ...odman Brown is forever changed by the revealing of the true deceptive nature of his fellow Christians that night. Everything and everyone he believed in is now viewed as evil, not good. His own worship in church is drowned by â€Å"an anthem of sin [that] rushed loudly upon his ear and drowned the blessed strain† of his song (2195). The key fact is that Goodman Brown let the evil images and people take his Faith away, but he never stops being â€Å"followed by Faith,† even when she is â€Å"an aged woman† and he is â€Å"borne to his grave† (2195). He stops loving and living by his Faith, but she never stops loving and living by him. Evil overtakes Goodman Brown, making his dying hour gloom, but Faith remains in the end. Work Cited Hawthorne, Nathaniel. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown.† The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. 2186-95.

Crime and Punishment Dreams

Sometimes a dream is much more than simply a dream. Sigmund Freud explains a dream’s ‘latent content’ is heavily derived from the ‘manifest’ dream-thoughts. The manifest being what is evident in the dream, and the latent being the underlying meaning of the dream. In Raskolnikov’s dream, the manifest is that he is a seven year old boy who is fond of horses. He sees a horse being tortured and beat, bringing amusement to the townspeople, as he walks with his father. As the horse dies, he goes to hug the beast and kisses it.When Raskolnikov awakens, he renounces that â€Å"accursed dream of [his]† and wonders if he can actually â€Å"take an axe [and] split her skull open,† referring to the pawnbroker, Alyona Ivanovna. The latent content to Raskolnikov’s dream highlights his dual personality. Similar to the instance of the drunken girl, Raskolnikov evinces his emotional and compassionate side by showing his love for horses as h e runs to it when it is killed. At the same time, his rational and abstract views are also described as he thinks about committing the crime and believes he has every right to do so.It is not evident who Raskolnikov clearly is in the dream. He is a representation of the horse, the boy himself, or even the gruesome murderer of the horse, Mikolka. He represents the horse because he thinks of himself as a victim in a terrible life, the boy because he can be loving  and have emotions and Mikolka because of his thoughts and plans to kill Alyona. Even though his dream is very blatant in its story, the overall meaning of it signifies something much more than just a flashback.

Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay

The field of medicine has experienced rapid growth with in the few 150 to 200 years, and over the years we have learn that many of these scientific developments were made at the expense of unorthodox procedures and research carried out with little to no concern on the unethical aspects of the research, as medical science advance the researchers place little or no effort towards informing subjects about the nature of experiments. Tuskegee syphilis experiments in Alabama was on especially an infamous experiment, from ‘‘1932 to 1972’‘ the U.S. Public Health Services (PHS) conducted an experiment on 400 African American males in the late stages of syphilis these men, for the most part illiterate sharecroppers from one of the poorest counties in Alabama, were told what disease they were suffering from or of its seriousness, informed that they were being treated for â€Å"Bad Blood† their Doctors had no intention of curing them for syphilis at all. The data for the experiment was to be collected for autopsies of the men, and they were thus deliberately left to degenerate under the ravages of tertiary syphilis which can include tumors, heart disease, paralysis, blindness, insanity and death, this is the most unethical, immoral and genocidal act carried out and funded my U.S. Public Health Services. Coercion or leverage was the main tactic the PHS researchers use to recruit their test subjects, whom was poor uneducated sharecroppers that luck the resources needed to seek out side help, by misinforming the participants about the truth of their illness (syphilis), but non the less this was a means for the PHS to carry out their hidden agenda, to make them aware that they do have an illness and The U.S. Public Health Services was there to help treat them of their so call bad blood pandemic, this act of coercion provided the PHS the leverage they need to recruit necessary research subjects. Because of this the consent acquired by the researchers from the research subjects was invalid because the information provided by the researchers was subjects was invalid, this violation of inform consent stemmed further, the researchers did not explain the expectancy and severity of the research, the researchers deliberately did not inform the subjects  that they have the right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once it has begun. The spider web of lies and deception planed and carried out by The U.S. Public Health Services researchers had no plans of curing the syphilis pandemic, the deception in this research is the main underlying reason why this research study is unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself, the deliberate use of deception in this research resulted in the deaths of a 100 African Americans research subjects, these deaths was actually apart of the research it self. ‘’The study actively kept the men away from treatment, even after penicillin became widely used for the treatment of syphilis in 1950s. In February of 1969, the PHS decided to continue the  study and to continue to deny the men antibiotic treatment even though penicillin had become established as the standard treatment for syphilis, because it assumed that the disease was far too advanced for it to be treated. Associated Press reporter Jean Heller broke the story on July 25, 1972 on the front-page of the New York Times and the study stopped at once’’ After the research had ended the only seventy-four participants of 400 infected subjects had still been a live after the study got exposited, In August 1972, an ad hoc committee found the study to have been â€Å"ethically unjustified† and argued that penicillin should have been given to the men upon its discovery. 40 years after the experiment had ended the test subjects was not Adequate debriefed on the true nature of the study and the long-term effects of the of the syphilis on their bodies, wife and kids. After the press release of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment the test subjects was provided with little to no confidentiality from the press or PHS after the findings of the research was publish. The experiment diversity was limited to African Americans males, who were the carry of the syphilis. References William J. Clinton, â€Å"Remarks,† in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 574-577. Thomas G. Benedek and Jonathan Erlen, â€Å"The Scientific Environment of the Tuskegee Study of Syphilis, 1920-1960, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 no. 1 (1999), 1-30. Ad Hoc Tuskegee Syphilis Panel, â€Å"Selections from the Final Report,† in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 166. Jean Heller, â€Å"Syphilis Victims in the U.S. Went Untreated for 40 years,† in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 116-117. anessa N. Gamble and Deborah Stone. â€Å"U.S. Policy on Health Inequities: the Interplay of Politics and Research,† Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 31, (2006): 93-126. Ruth R. Faden, Susan E. Lederer , J. E. Lederer, and Juan D. Moreno, â€Å"U.S. Medical Researchers, the Nuremberg Doctors Trial, and the Nuremberg Code,† Journal of the American Medical Association, 276 no. 20(1996): 1668. Martin S. Pernick, â€Å"The patient’s role in medical decision making: a social history of informed consent in medical therapy,† in Making Health Care Decisions: A Report on the Ethical and Legal Implications of Informed Consent in the Patient-Practitioner Relationship, President’s Commission for Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 3 1-25.

Voyage to the Moon The Fantastic Dream of Georges Méliès

Voyage to the Moon The Fantastic Dream of Georges Mà ©lià ¨s The silent film Voyage to the Moon directed by Georges Mà ©lià ¨s represents an important landmark in the development of cinematography since it incorporates a variety of techniques that were revolutionary by the standards of the early twentieth century. For a long time, the color version of the film was believed to be irretrievably lost.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Voyage to the Moon†: The Fantastic Dream of Georges Mà ©lià ¨s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, due to painstaking effort of many cinematographers, it was eventually restored and displayed at the Cannes Film Festival. Overall, one can say that the restored version of this movie only enhances the sense of unreality that Mà ©lià ¨s tried to create; moreover, it highlights the idea that Voyage to the Moon is a surrealistic fantasy and a theatrical performance, rather than a science-fiction film. This is the main thesis that sh ould be elaborated in greater detail. By coloring this film, cinematographers were able to enrich this work of art. In particular, the color version helps the audience understand the way in which this director could have envisioned the fantastic images that he created. For instance, it is possible to speak about the scenes in which the landscape of the Moon is depicted. To a great extent, this landscape becomes much more vivid. Furthermore, the audience can better visualize the clothes of the main characters and the complex scenery designed for the movie. This is one of the changes that should be considered, since for more than a century, the viewers were deprived of this opportunity. Apart from that, this version enables the spectators to see that this film can be compared to a theatrical performance with very complex stage decorations that are more important than actors who cannot contribute much to the film. This is one of the techniques frequently employed by Georges Mà ©lià ¨ s. Additionally, much attention to should be paid to the sound track included in the restored version of this movie. At the beginning, it creates the sense of suspense and prompts the audience to think that the main characters can be exposed to grave danger. In contrast, the original musical score creates a light-hearted mood which does not give rise to any misgivings. This is one of the differences that should be considered by the viewers. One can also say that the color version changes the effect produced by the fantastic elements of this movie. In particular, the viewers can see that Georges Mà ©lià ¨s wants to highlight the unreality or even theatricality of the action. This argument is particularly relevant if one speaks about Mà ©lià ¨s’s conception of the Moon surface.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, one can speak about the giant mushroom s that seem to be taken out of a surrealistic dream when they are colored (Voyage to the Moon). Furthermore, the director’s portrayal of the Moon inhabitants or Selenites becomes more vivid. These insectoid creatures appear to be even more grotesque (Voyage to the Moon). The main issue is that at the time, when this film was first released, the images of Selenites produced a long-lasting impression on the spectators, but nowadays, they seem to be comic. Yet, it is difficult to determine whether Georges Mà ©lià ¨s could anticipate this effect. This is one of the aspects that can be identified. It is possible to argue that Voyage to the Moon cannot be viewed as a science fiction film, even though this cinematographic work was partly inspired by Jules Verne’s novels. However, Georges Mà ©lià ¨s uses them to create fantastic or even surrealistic images. For instance, one can mention the scene depicting astronomers’ landing on the Moon. It seems that they reach a fairy-tale world inhabited by grotesque monsters that explode as soon as they are hit. Such images are hardly compatible with science-fiction cinematography or literature. Moreover, one can mention the opening of Astronomers’ Club. The actors’ clothing and setting suggest that the action could take place in the Middle Ages, but not at the beginning of the twentieth century (Voyage to the Moon). In this way, Georges Mà ©lià ¨s increases the sense of unreality that has to captivate the audience. One can also say that the plot of this movie is only as used as a pretext for showcasing the images that cinematographic art can produce. However, he does not want to depict the events in a realistic manner. The adoption of this approach is one of the reasons why Georges Mà ©lià ¨s is distinguished among other film-directors who worked during the silent era of cinematography. This is one of the points that can be made. Overall, this discussion suggests that the restoration o f Georges Mà ©lià ¨s’s film throws a new light on this cinematographic work. First of all, it demonstrates that Georges Mà ©lià ¨s intended this movie to a fantasy film which was not closely related to science fiction.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Voyage to the Moon†: The Fantastic Dream of Georges Mà ©lià ¨s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More More likely, this film should be viewed as a theatrical performance showcasing fantastic and surrealistic images. So, the restoration of the colored version of Georges Mà ©lià ¨s’s enriches this masterpiece and helps the audience better appreciate this work. These are the main arguments that can be advanced. Voyage to the Moon. Ex. Prod. Georges Mà ©lià ¨s. Los Angeles: Technicolor Lab, 2011. DVD.

The Role of DNA in Evolution

The Role of DNA in Evolution Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the blueprint for all inherited characteristics in living things. It is a very long sequence, written in code, that needs to be transcribed and translated before a cell can make the proteins that are essential for life. Any sort of changes in the DNA sequence can lead to changes in those proteins, and, in turn, they can translate into changes in the traits those proteins control. Changes at a molecular level lead to microevolution of species. The Universal Genetic Code The DNA in living things is highly conserved. DNA has only four nitrogenous bases that code for all differences in living things on Earth. Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine line up in a specific order and a group of three, or a codon, code for one of 20Â  amino acids found on Earth. The order of those amino acids determines what protein is made. Remarkably enough, only four nitrogenous bases that make only 20 amino acids account for all diversity of life on Earth. There has not been any other code or system found in any living (or once living) organism on Earth. Organisms from bacteria to humans to dinosaurs all have the same DNA system as a genetic code. This may point to evidence that all life evolved from a single common ancestor. Changes in DNA All cells are pretty well-equipped with a way to check a DNA sequence for mistakes before and after cell division, or mitosis. Most mutations, or changes in DNA, are caught before copies are made and those cells are destroyed. However, there are times when small changes do not make that much of a difference and will pass through the checkpoints. These mutations may add up over time and change some of the functions of that organism. If these mutations happen in somatic cells, in other words, normal adult body cells, then these changes do not affect future offspring. If the mutations happen in gametes, or sex cells, those mutations do get passed down to the next generation and may affect the function of the offspring. These gamete mutations lead to microevolution. Evidence for Evolution DNA has only come to be understood over the last century. The technology has been improving and has allowed scientists to not only map out entire genomes of many species, but they also use computers to compare those maps. By entering genetic information of different species, it is easy to see where they overlap and where there are differences. The more closely species are related on the phylogenetic tree of life, the more closely their DNA sequences will overlap. Even very distantly related species will have some degree of DNA sequence overlap. Certain proteins are needed for even the most basic processes of life, so those selected parts of the sequence that codes for those proteins will be conserved in all species on Earth. DNA Sequencing and Divergence Now that DNA fingerprinting has become easier, cost-effective, and efficient, the DNA sequences of a wide variety of species can be compared. In fact, it is possible to estimate when the two species diverged or branched off through speciation. The larger the percentage of differences in the DNA between two species, the greater the amount of time the two species have been separate. These molecular clocks can be used to help fill in the gaps of the fossil record. Even if there are missing links within the timeline of history on Earth, the DNA evidence can give clues as to what happened during those time periods. While random mutation events may throw off the molecular clock data at some points, it is still a pretty accurate measure of when species diverged and became new species.

Use of Computers in Hotels Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Use of Computers in Hotels - Essay Example One of the trends he identified was the shift from an Industrial Society to an information society. The level of change involved is so fundamental yet so subtle that we tend not to see it or if we see it, we dismiss it as overly simplistic and thus we ignore itThe problem is that our thinking our attitudes, and consequently our decision-making have not caught up with the reality of things. Naisbitt further stated that Apple Computers, a pioneer in the field of personal computers, estimated that total sale of computers would grow at least 40 percent annually. On the other hand, scientific and technical information was increase 13 percent per year at the time of this study and was expected to increase to 40 percent per year thus creating the need for more powerful information systems and increasing the population of scientists. Naisbitt added that this level of information was clearly impossible to handle by present means. Information had become very important to modern society. In most business, demographic information about client was not readily available in the hotel industry however it was very easy to track down the demographic information of client because every guest or group must register when checking in. Goffe and Parker stated that computers can greatly simplify the task of managing large masses of information. Unfortunately at the time of this study the lodging industry in the world was about a decade behind other industries in incorporating computer techniques. Even in those hotels that were using computers their use was usually limited to the front office, and marketing applications were usually an after though if they were not neglected entirely. The problem of insufficient computer use in hotel marketing was discussed by several other experts in the hospitality industry Taylor (2006) stated that the sales and marketing function have always been deemed beyond the reach of available technique. Sales people still wrote booking in diaries instead of entering information in computers. With so many variables impacting upon hundreds of bookings, it was very easy to make costly mistakes for example salesmen might forget to log their room sales in diaries causing rooms to be overbooked. Insufficient computer use can also cause problems like delays in replying to customers about the availability of rooms because data is not immediately available to Goffe and Parker (2005:110); computer if utilized properly could bring many benefits to hotel marketers. They added that computers can be used for following things very easily. In Advertising, Sales promotion and Publicity areas: Measurement of the effectiveness of different advertising and commercials. Measurement of the effectiveness of different sales promotion. Preparing past clients mailing list. Monitoring of advertising budgets. Preparing publicity budget. O'Connor (2004) elucidates the different functions of computers for marketing purposes: In Sales and Sales Management: Preparation of market share analysis. Tracking and ranking how much business each geographic market brings. Preparing potential clients list. Tracking the reasons for cancelled

Operations Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Operations Management - Assignment Example For this purpose, two different case studies have been analyzed. It is important for the organizations to come up with proper quality management and production management strategies, in order to make sure that the organization is able to meet the overall objectives and show high growth and increasing profits (Charvet, Cooper, & Gardner, 2008; Dahlgaard and Dahlgaard-Park, 2006). CASE STUDY: THE REALCO BREADMASTER Master Product Schedule for the Bread maker       Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Forecasted demand    20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 Booked orders    23,500 23,500 21,500 15,050 13,600 11,500 5,400 1,800 Projected ending inventory    7,000 27,000 47,000 67,000 87,000 107,000 127,000 147,000 Master production Schedule    40,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 Available to promise    16,500 16,500 18,500 24,950 26,400 28,500 34,600 38,200 The projected ending inventory gives a clear notification o f extra production by production department. The amount or units of projected ending inventory is increasing with the passage of weeks and increasing the inventory holding or maintenance cost for the company. Available-to-promise inventory number tells that the rate of holding inventory is increasing week-by-week and which causes the increment in ware house cost and inventory management cost. Realco already have excess production and has a capacity of producing more than the demand so the Realco can make promises with the customers to meet the demand with its available projected ending inventories. Realco should improve the production level by analyzing an accurate demand from the market. Realco needs to analyze and determine the gap between the demand and supply to understand the market variations then produce according to the market requirements. This practice will reduce the cost of holding inventory and contain the organization with the balance figure of demand and supply which gives handsome profits in short term period (Barlow, 2005). Jack’s Approach to Order Promising: Jack does not have a formal production plan and he has not analyzed the demand and supply on the basis of any formulated schedule or any economic analysis. Jack’s forecasting strategy is based on analogy which means future expectation is completely rely on past experiences, with this approach Jack make assumptions for meeting the demand. It has a benefit of availability of inventory because of excess amount of production. Benefit in a way that the ending inventory is utilizing by the Jack’s promises. On the other hand this unformulated and informal strategic planning has a dark side too which can cause a big down fall in company’s financial position. If the demand would exceed from the production then it will be difficult for the company to meet the demand of people which will directly affect the brand loyalty and at that point competitor will fill the gap of d emand and get the competitive advantage. And if the demand gets decreased with the passage of time and production level is same then the company will bear a high holding inventory cost. The formal master scheduling will design the balance structure of demand and supply by analyzing the market trends. It will reduce the c

The Role of the Hospitality Manager Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Role of the Hospitality Manager - Essay Example Hence the managers of the hotel or resort needs to ensure that proper customer services are provided for the long term success of the hotel or resort (Nasution and Mavondo, 2008). In order to understand the disparity of both roles in the professional context, it is significant to know about their basic roles. A leader is an influential personality who is capable to inspire people to follow his footsteps. A leader has a higher degree of convincing and persuasive qualities, which can make people act accordingly (O?Gorman, 2008). The leader has the power and potential to influence large masses if the right leadership qualties are demonstarted. The leaders are of different types and if the audience is convinced, the leader can bring about major chnages in the area of operations. Leadership is about establishing a concrete and clear vision, sharing your viewpoint with others and your co-workers so that they follow your outlook willingly. A leader can see the problems and the goals that ot hers usually don’t focus on or may be no one else wants to tackle. It’s only the leader that pays attention to the difficulties and objective with single minded determination (Academia21, 2010). Leaders may devise out of the box solutions duw to their creativeness in working around problems and this ability may not be possessed by others. Leadership also involves the coordination and balancing of the different interests of all the co-workers and stakeholders. The stakeholders and shareholders of the business are important entities that need tobe given careful consideration as their interest in the success and profitability of the business should be intact so that desired results can be obtained. This challenging task can be successfully carried out by the leader. A leader is supposed to provide information, knowledge and ways to actualise the vision that he carries along. This vision needs to be clear, consistent and without any biasness or doubt so that all the organi sation staff and the shareholders of the firm know the main aim of the organisation's operations. Leadership is necessitated in times of crisis and it is very crucial when creativity is required to deal with the situation (Bit Rebels, 2013). As far as relation of management and leadership is concerned; they both go hand in hand. It would not be wrong to call both of the roles as two sides of the same coin. Although they are not the same but they go together. Many of the times they are considered the same thing. One is incomplete without the other. A manager is supposed to plan, organise and coordinate whereas a leader is there to inspire and motivate. A manager needs to demonstrate consistency and discipline while conducting all the tasks. The manager needs to ensure that all employees are performing their job roles in a systematic mode and following the right direction of achieving the goals. A leader does not require any managerial position whereas a manager can be a true manager even if he has the leadership qualities in him (Tepeci and Bartlett, 2002). A leader is diverted more towrads the influential part rather than gaining a position in the organisation. To make it concise, some points describing a leader and manager are mentioned below Manager maintains, the leader develops and initiates. Manager pays attention on work procedures, the leader focuses on employees. Manager imitates,

Teenage Violent Crime Rates in the US

Teenage Violent Crime Rates in the US Erica Goncalves What do teenagers do after school? Research states that 1 in 5 children in the United States are unsupervised after school. This leads to teen violence. Teen violence are when children get out of school and join a group of gang and start committing crimes, go in the internet and bully other students. Lastly, teen violence are still going on because of the ways teens are acting, the way they are because of the videogames and the kinds of music teens are listening to. Teen violence are in every school and place that contains teen in it. Those teens that are doing the violence has been abused or bullied before. Teen violence has been passed through generations it gets pass on each year to young adult, the causes of teen violence in the city of Boston is that teen violence is caused because of the ways the parents treat them violence teens. This shows that we need more afterschool program in the United States to keep children engaged and productive. Children in quality afterschool progra ms are more likely to come to school, stay in school, hand in their work, and get better grades. After school programs are particularly well positioned to make a difference in a students life to help them be successful. Students who attends an after school program have a higher chance of going the college and have a career than students who does not attend an afterschool program. The problem is that there is a lot of teen violence happening lately. Over the last couple [1]years teen violence has been a problem that is affecting everyone in the city of Boston[2]. Teen [3]violence also affect a lot of things like lowering the budget of the city, making streets unsafe, harassing and bullying other citizen, and sadly the increase in the number of teen who lose their life. According to recent studies about teen violence, 12% of students who attended high school reported having a weapon, and about 3% were carrying a gun. Also 20% of students reported participating in a physical fight, 7% of teens were reported to participate in gang activities. When it comes to bullying, 17% of students said that they had been a victim of bullying and 14% said that they been a victim of cyberbullying [1]. The city of Boston contains 25% of the violence in all of Massachusetts [2]. It is not easy for a teen to focus and be positive know that 64% of recovered guns are seized from peo ple who own them illegally[3]. Teen Violence has a pervasive effect on all members of the society, from the teens themselves to adults that pay higher taxes to address the issue. Students that do not go to an after school program are most likely to become involved in teen crime. These students that are unsupervised after school are 49% more likely to use drugs and 37% more likely to become a teen parent than kids that attend some after school programs for 1-4 hours each week. (add footnote) Another example of the impact of after school programs is that students that attend an after school program are less likely to be suspended from school for violence, and students already in the juvenile court system that attended after school programs were less likely to go back to court for any reason, especially for violence. Lastly, students in afterschool programs were less likely to become a first time offender of violence in the community than other students not in an afterschool program that had not already committed any crime.(Add Footnote) Twoafter school programs have had large success in preventing crime. When an after school program was created in 12 California neighborhoods, teen crime decreased significantly. Vandalism decreased by two-thirds, violent acts and carrying a concealed gun decreased by more than half, and the number of arrests made by the police decreased by half (add footnote #1). Baltimore also made an after school program through the police department. Once it was created, juvenile crime dropped by 10% and the risk of children and teens as victi,s of crime was cut in half (add footnote #1). Lastly, the crime rate decreased by 75% in a housing project when an after school program was created, but crime increased in a similar housing project when there was no after school program (add footnote #2). After school program have existed for many years. After- school programs first [4]emerged in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, in the form of small, idiosyncratic boys clubs, often no more than a storefront or room in a church or other local building(The context for the emergence of the after school program by Robert Halpern).The clubs evolved to provide recreation and learning activities to children. In addition the supply of after school programs is not as high as the demand for them.Twice as many elementary and middle school parents want afterschool programs as are currently available(National Opinion Research Center). What makes this problem severe is that the lack of afterschool programs allows students to drop out, commit crimes and become teen parents. The hours between 3 and 6 p.m. are the peak hours for juvenile crime and experimentation with drugs, alcohol, cigarettes and sex(Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 2003). This is the time when students are leaving school and feel like they are on their own. In recent years, more children have been attending after school programs. Their families are in favor of their positive benefits. In 2004, 6.5 million children participated in after school programs, and this value increased to 8.4 million in 2009 and 10.2 million today (add footnote #3). Parents who have kids who attend an after school program have been increasingly satisfied with the programs. Over time they have increased their satisfaction in quality of care, homework assistance, workforce skills development, variety of activities, and the knowledged staff (footnote #3). Juvenile crime rates have decreased since the 1980s, so the effectiveness of afterschool programs is seen in many ways. In recent years (2008-2012), the teen crime rate has decreased. Murder decreased by 42%, rape decreased 24%, robbery decreased by 39%, and aggravated assault decreased by 35% as well in the 4 year period (add footnote #4). For the 6th consecutive year after 2006, the youth violent crime rate has decreased dramatically in the US (footnote #4). The prevalence of crime in males and females ages 10-17 has decreased in the last 4 years. It has also decreased for all races- whites, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians. Between 2003-2012, violent crime for Asian youth has decreased by 44%, 41% for American Indians, 39% for whites, and 23% for blacks (add footnote #4).The components of violent crime- murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault- have fallen to record lows over the period of 2008-2012.(add footnote #4) Youth property crime has decreased significantly coming up to 2012. In 2012, the property crime rates were at its lowest levels since 1980. In the same 4 year period described earlier, youth were arrested 36% less for burglary, 30% less for larceny-theft, 47% for motor vehicle theft, and 33% less for arson (footnote).The prevalence of property crime has decreased for both genders over the period of 2008-2012. The prevalence has also decreased for all races, [5]too- whites, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians. Students who spend no time in extracurricular activities, such as those offered in after-school programs, are 49 percent more likely to have used drugs and 37 percent more likely to become teen parents than are those students who spend one to four hours per week in extracurricular activities(National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center). Youths who went to a juvenile detention facility were significantly less likely to be suspended from school compared to kids who did not participate in the program. Teens who were a part of the juvenile justice system were significantly less likely to fall back into committing crimes. Teens that had no experience were less likely to commit a first offense. A study of afterschool programs conducted by the California Juvenile Crime Prevention Demonstration Project in 12 high-risk California communities found that, the rate of crime and delinquency went down after they started the program. Vandalism and stealing dropped by two-thirds, violent acts and carrying a concealed weapon fell by more than half, and arrests and being picked up by the police were cut in half. In the three years after Baltimores Police Department opened a Police Activities League (PAL) afterschool program in one high-crime neighborhood, juvenile crime in the neighborhood dropped nearly 10 percent, and the risk of c hildren and teens becoming crime victims was cut nearly in half. While juvenile victimization rates were coming down for all Baltimore juveniles, the rate in the area served by the PAL program came down nearly three times as fast as it did for the city as a whole.x Paulo Barros is the person who run the program. All the decisions in implementing the proposed program is made by the director Paulo Barros, catholic charities board, the president of the CEO and vice president of the CEO. It costs the company 1.3 millions of dollars to run yearly. Success are measured based on how many students go the college. It is also measured by the amount of gang involved in the environment and arrests, and how many students gets a job. Also that is where many of Cape Verdean students learn English. This program has been run since 2001. It use to be a middle school K1-8. The program use to run cafeteria in the basement that had nothing to do with school. Throughout the year the program became bigger and bigger and once the school shut down because of the archdiocese sex scandal. Then the teen center took over the building. Saint Peter encourage students to stay in school. Students who attends to Saint Peter are more likely to get good grades and perfect attenda nce. Saint Peter prevent teens from doing drugs or commit crimes. They dont serve elementary students due to the lack of funding. Not only that but Saint Peter is not very diverse majority of Cape Verdeans that goes there. The key groups who support this program are the mayor menino and his family. He backed up our mission statements and wanted a safe community for Bowdoin and Geneva area. The mission that he supported was to provide education, enrichment, leadership development and recreational activities to the adolescents of the Mid- Dorchester corridor. Second Alternative: Mattapan Teen Center The program is run by the director Ronald Carroll. In 2008 Bain Company donated to complete a 100 million dollars comprehensive campaign, which calls for investment in innovation and impact to double the number of youth served at the point. It costs 20,686,041 for all operating expensive. Boys and Girls club is successful by teaching young people the skills they need to succeed in life. This can be measured easily by comparing the ratio of students who attends to an after school program to who doesnt and see whos more likely to be successful in life. 97% are expected to graduate high school. It has been run since 1893. First club was found in Charlestown in 1893. The Boston foundation helped put the girls in the Boys and Girls clubs by providing a $300,000, for three years grant to reach out to special categories of youth who lack opportunities for appealing programs. In 1981, the club formally changed its name to Boy and Girls clubs of Boston and national organization followed in 1 990. Boys and Girls Club help kids stay in school and improve their academic success. It is open daily, after school and on weekends when kids have time and wants to be productive. It helps kids graduate from high school not only that but it also save lives. Boys and Girls club are located in disadvantaged community areas. Macs- generous support for BGCAs mission and our local Clubs through funds raised during the annual Thanks for Sharing campaign helped to create great futures for Americas young people. Ross Stores- helped Clubs provide homework assistance to more than 12,000 youth at 90 Clubs through its support of Power Hour. ConocoPhillips- supported BGCAs dropout prevention program,Best Buy Childrens Foundation. The mission statement is to help young people, specially those who need us most, build strong character and realize their full potential as responsible citizens and leaders. The organization does this by providing a safe haven filled with hope and opportunity, ongoing relationship with caring adults and life-enhancing programs. Alternative 3: Holland School The program is run by Hillary casson. That legislation that this program supports is the Massachusetts Department of Early Education and Care because the Programs are licensed by the Massachusetts Department of Early Education and Care and Turnaround plan. The Chester commissioners team and Scoot given, the chief executive officer are in charge of the day to day management of the school. And will work directly to implement the holland plan. The Mission of this program is that all students acquire the knowledge, skills, and strength of character necessary to succeed on the path to college and to achieve their full potential. Therefore it is measure of how many students are moving on to the next grade and their growth from the time they start and end. 2013, Up receives a new schools venture fund U.S education reform organization of the year award. UpHolland is a elementary school and there is an after school programs that include homework support and tutoring. Upholland after school su pports all students with extra help including students with disabilities and English language learners. They only serve K1- 5th grader. The key groups who support this after school program is the College Bound Dorchester. The college Bound Dorchester provides students with a range of activities including homework assistance, writing, visual and performing arts, science exploration, physical education and field trips. During the last year, 98% of Out of School Time students were promoted to the next grade level on time. Out of School Time programs serve children ages 6 to 12 years between the hours of 1:00 pm to 6:00 pm during the academic year. [1] Youth Violence Prevention Through Positives Youth Development Mass. gov ,2013. Accessed January 30,2017 http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dph/programs/community-health/dvip/violence/youth-violence-prevention-program.html [2] Crime Rates for Boston, MA Neighborhoodscout.com . Accessed February 6,2017 https://www.neighborhoodscout.com/ma/boston/crime/ [3] Mayor Walsh and Police Commissioner Evans Announce Additional Steps to Curb Gun Violence Cityofboston.gov. September,09,2015 accessed February,6,2017 http://www.cityofboston.gov/news/default.aspx?id=20321 [1]race, age, genders [2]better few as of someone who doesnt know anything about boston [3]ages 13-18 [4]explain how after school has a huge impact in women . how it gives women the opportunity to work instead of be a house wifey and take care of the kids [5]duration 1 paragraph